Before and During First Contact – The Early Years – From the Years 1500s Onwards
Note: For the purposes of this series of articles, first contact between indigenous peoples and European colonizers in what is now known as Canada is considered to have occurred starting in the 1500s. The Viking arrival centuries earlier is not considered for the purposes of this series, as these settlements were occupied for only about 1 decade.
The European Perspective
European explorers in the 15th and 16th centuries are typically said to have pursued ship explorations of other parts of the globe for 3 reasons: god, gold, and glory. The Doctrine of Discovery approach developed in the 15th and 16th century by the Vatican approved the colonizing of territories unknown to Europeans that were inhabited by peoples Europeans deemed primitive (non-Christian). This primitive label included the indigenous peoples of Canada and the United States.
According to one description, “If an explorer proclaims to have discovered the land in the name of a Christian European monarch, plants a flag in its soil, and reports his “discovery” to the European rulers and returns to occupy it, the land is now his, even if someone else was there first.” If the original indigenous inhabitants make a claim that the land was originally theirs then the “discoverer” can state that the culture of the original indigenous inhabitants is primitive compared to European standards, and thus they don’t have any right to the land.
The god element of colonialism included a push to make the indigenous peoples Christian through proselytization. Missionaries from European countries were sent to the newly “discovered” territories to achieve this purpose.
The gold element relates to the desire to secure wealth from newly found lands. European countries during the 15th and 16th centuries wanted to open up new trade routes due to pressure on existing trade routes. As such, the explorers found new lands and resources from these lands to take back to the old world. These resources included furs from Quebec obtained by French traders by trading with indigenous peoples in exchange for French goods. It also included the extraction of gold and silver deposits in Mexico, Central America, and South America by the Spanish and spices and other products obtained by the Dutch through trading away metals. Other resources highly valued by colonial states included sugar, timber, tobacco, rice, cotton, and other agricultural products. European colonial powers grew their economy significantly due to this trade, with increased availability of goods, wealth accumulation, and the creation of new industries such as ship building and manufacturing.
Glory for European countries also played a role in explorations. European countries were competing with each other for power through these conquests and expanding their empires as well as influence. These countries pursued colonization to establish their dominance. They built ships fitted with weapons to achieve colonial dominance. All of this was a symbol of their country’s strength on the world stage.
The Perspective of Indigenous Peoples of Canada – Before First Contact
Canada’s indigenous peoples had complex societies before European colonization. Examples of this sophistication include diverse communities, trade networks, a multitude of languages and cultural/spiritual practices, teachings on how to live in harmony with the land, different types of livelihoods, and different governance systems.
Different Communities
There existed about 600 distinct First Nation communities before contact with European colonizers in the 16th century – these are typically broken down into 6 main geographical areas as below:
Woodland First Nations – dense boreal forest in the eastern part of the country
Iroquoian First Nations – the southernmost area
Plains First Nations – the grasslands of the Prairies
Plateau First Nations – ranging from semi-desert conditions in the south to high mountains and dense forest in the north
Pacific Coast First Nations – west coast
First Nations of the Mackenzie and Yukon River Basin – land includes dark forests, barren lands and the swampy terrain known as muskeg
Trade Networks
A number of items were traded between different first nations groups including food, seeds, clothing, art materials, tools, and raw materials like copper and obsidian. Trade networks were, in some cases, built through waterways (eg. St. Lawrence river), coastlines, and land trails. These networks could span hundreds of kilometres. Trade was mostly focused on barter trading (which is the exchanging of goods without using money) as well as the giving of gifts to build relationships and demonstrating generosity. Unlike some other societies around the world, the accumulation of wealth was not emphasized. Trade also included the transmission of cultural practices, knowledge, and social structures.
Multitude of Languages and Their Importance
According to one estimate, prior to European colonization of Canada there were about 450 languages and dialects spoken by indigenous peoples in what is now Canada. Much of this diversity has been lost. Languages are critical for maintaining a culture as it’s a link to worldviews, teachings, identity, spirituality, history, ancestors, and connection to the land.
Cultural and Spiritual Practices
Indigenous communities had spiritual practices that emphasized the interconnectedness of all things as well as a spirit for all living things – this is sometimes called animism. This included plants, animals, rivers, mountains, and other inanimate entities. Spiritual leaders helped ordinary people connect with these different entities for healing, guidance, and understanding of the spiritual world. Spiritual practices included offering gifts to these different entities to express gratitude for the resources that these entities provided. Indigenous culture also valued the honouring of ancestors. This was to pass down their culture and traditions as well as link past, present, and future generations of people. The traditions of indigenous communities were passed down through oral traditions to preserve stories, songs, and ceremonies. In addition, each First Nation had their own creation story indicating the origins of the world and everything thing in it including humanity. It helped identify their own place within the world.
Practices on How to Live in Harmony with the Land
Indigenous communities built a link to their land and waters through a sense of spiritual connection, a recognition of their dependence to mother earth, and a responsibility towards mother earth. These peoples felt that the earth was a source of life and nourishment and, as such, felt a sense of respect and reverence towards the earth. Ceremonies and oral traditions were rooted in recognizing the importance of the land. These communities also acknowledge the need to protect the land due to their need to obtain sustenance through activities such as hunting, fishing, trapping, and gathering. These communities also established how to sustainably obtain foods without destroying the different food resources or the land upon which these species reside. Indigenous peoples recognized the interconnectedness of all life on mother earth and as a result the need to protect and preserve nature.
Types of Livelihoods
Livelihoods included hunting, gathering, fishing, as well as agriculture for crops like corn, bean and squash.
Governance Systems
Before European contact, indigenous peoples had diverse governance structures. They included a consensus-based approach, guidance from elders, a strong role for women, and a responsibility to the land and to future generations. In some cases, clan chiefs were chosen by merit and wisdom, while in other cases, chiefs were chosen by matrilineal clan mothers.
Early Contact
Indigenous peoples first encountering the European explorers of the 16th and 17th century approached these explorers with great interest but also fear. Generally, indigenous communities welcomed the new settlers. The explorers established links with these people for their commercial interests, particularly the fur trade. The indigenous communities worked with the settlers by providing essential knowledge of the land, resources, and survival skills. First Nations traded away furs to the early European settlers in exchange for European goods.
European countries trying to set a foothold on North America engaged in conflict between each other and indigenous communities for control of the land and trading opportunities. This is particularly true of France and Britain. Both countries established alliances with different indigenous communities to secure the land, their commercial interests, and their influence.
Conclusion
These early interactions set the stage for the next stage of interactions between indigenous peoples and European colonizers. At this stage, between the 1600 to the late 1700s, indigenous peoples were still in a somewhat powerful position in relation to the settlers and so the colonizers focused on making alliances. As Britain gained greater control over the land, a change in approach towards indigenous peoples became apparent. The feeling at that time was to make indigenous peoples Christian and assimilate them into mainstream society. This transition will be covered in a subsequent article.
